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      (#(#{n {n {n {n %      {n%  {n     {n     {n  {n45Harv.J.L.&Pub.Pol'y523B3 BdB        {n      {n      {n kkj {nHarvardJournalofLaw&PublicPolicyB3 BdB    B3 BdB    {n kkj {nSpring,2022      {n      {n{n kkj {nArticleB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n{n48    5  {nJohnK.Bush6  8    7  %  {n48    5  {na16  8    7  6  8    7   kkj {nԀ{n6  8    7   kkj {nA.J.Jeffries%  {n48    5  {naa16  8    7  B3 BdB         {n6  8    7   kkj {nCopyright2022bytheHarvardSocietyforLaw&PublicPolicy,Inc.;JohnK.Bush,A.J.JeffriesB3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB         {nB3 BdB        {n6  8    7   !!! {nTHEHORSELESSCARRIAGEOFCONSTITUTIONALINTERPRETATION:CORPUSLINGUISTICSANDTHEMEANINGOF {n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDIRECT`d{n6  8    7   !!! {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTAXES`d{n6  8    7   !!! {n IN{n6  8    7   !!! {nHYLTONv.UNITEDSTATESB3 BdB        {n     {n     {n     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Thegreatobjectofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwas,togiveCongressapowertolaytaxes,adequatetotheexigenciesofgovernment;buttheyweretoobserve...theruleofapportionment,accordingtothecensus,whentheylaidany{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n4 8    5  {n V {nHyltonv.UnitedStates V {n,3U.S.(3Dall.)171,173(1796)6  8    7    {nԀ(opinionofChase,J.)B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB      {nԀB3 BdB      {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n{n  {nIntroductionB3 BdB        {n%      {n  {n WhatwouldtheFoundersdo? %  {n4S8    5  {n16  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatisaworthwhilequestionforcorpuslinguisticstoaskasitsmethodologymaturesandfoundationalcorporaliketheCorpusofFounding-EraAmericanEnglishcomeintobeing.Whatsourceswouldtheyconsult?Whatdidtheyread?Answeringthosequestionswillmakecorpuslinguisticsamorevaluabletooltoanswerthefoundationalquestioninconstitutionalinterpretation:whatdidWethePeopleagreetoin1788?%  {n4a8    5  {n26  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5246  8    7    {nԀWeconsiderthosequestionsinthecontextof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n --ahotlydebatedtopicthroughoutournation'shistory.%  {n48    5  {n36  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀgivesCongressabroadpowertotax,butitplacesimportantlimitationsonthatpower,includingthatdirecttaxationmayoccuronlyifthetaxisapportionedamongthestates.%  {n48    5  {n46  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀA{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀisconstitutionallyapportionedwhentheamountofthetaxpaidfromeachstateisequaltoitsshareofthenation'stotalpopulation.%  {n48    5  {n56  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nThesubjectofdirecttaxationfirstcameupinfederalcourtafterCongressimposedataxoncarriageownershipin1794.%  {n4_8    5  {n66  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAcenturylater,Congressenactedanincometax.%  {n4p8    5  {n76  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndtoday,astheconceptionoftheproperroleofgovernmentexpandsyetfurther,prominentpoliticianshavebeguntoadvocateforataxonwealth.%  {n48    5  {n86  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀEachofthosenovelfederaltaxeshasfacedthesameconstitutionalchallenge:anargumentthateachisa {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n andthereforeareunconstitutionalunlesstheyareapportionedaccordingtothesocalled {n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClause ofArticleI.%  {n48    5  {n96  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀYetdespitetheapportionmentrequirement'simportance,ithasremainedacceptedwisdom%  {n6  8    7    {n*5256  8    7    {nԀattheSupremeCourtthat [e]venwhenthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClausewaswrittenitwasunclearwhatelse,otherthanacapitation(alsoknownasa headtax ora polltax ),mightbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. %  {n48    5  {n106  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nCorpuslinguisticsoffersawaytotesttheCourt'sclaimthatthosewhowroteandratifiedthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClauseenactedconstitutionaltextthattheydidnotthemselvesunderstand. [C]orpuslinguisticsisthestudyoflanguagefunctionandusebymeansofanelectroniccollectionofnaturallyoccurringlanguagecalledacorpus. %  {n4g8    5  {n116  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀByexamininghundredsofusesofaphraseinitsnaturalcontext,researcherscanbetteridentifythe relevantsensesormeaningsofthewordsandphrasesthatappearintheconstitutionaltext. %  {n4{8    5  {n126  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThisArticleappliesthetechniquetothephrase {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n inthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClause,whichreads, NoCapitation,orother{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {n,{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀshallbelaid,unlessinProportiontotheCensusorenumerationhereinbeforedirectedtobetaken. %  {n4)8    5  {n136  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀDefiningthatclauseisvitallyimportantbecauseofthe practicalimpossibilityinmoderntimesofapportioningjustaboutanyplausibletax. %  {n48    5  {n146  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nOuranalysissoughttoanswerthreequestions.Did {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n haveanestablishedmeaningatthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀratification?Ifso,%  {n6  8    7    {n*5266  8    7    {nԀwhatwasthatmeaning?Andfinally,whatroleshouldcorpuslinguisticsplayinassessingquestionsoforiginalpublicmeaninglikethefirsttwo?Tothefirstquestion,thecorpusofferedaresoundingyes.Ouranswerstothesecondandthirdquestions,however,offersupportforLawrenceSolum'sviewthat,whilecorpusanalysiscanbeausefultoolforconstitutionalinterpretation,italoneisnotalwaysenoughtodetermineaconstitutionaltext'smeaning.%  {n48    5  {n156  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nPartIofthisArticledescribestheclause'soriginsandthemoderndebateamongscholarsoverthemeaningof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. PartII.Abrieflyexplainscorpuslinguisticsandthecorpusweused.PartII.Bpresentsourfindings.ThenPartII.Canalyzesthem.PartIVdiscussesourfindings'implicationsfor{n6  8    7    {nHyltonv.UnitedStates6  8    7    {n,%   {n48    5  {n166  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀtheSupremeCourt'sfirstforayintointerpretingthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClauseandacasethatprovidescluesastowhattheFramerswouldadvisethatweshoulddowithrespecttotheuseofcorpuslinguistics.Finally,PartIVoffersourbriefthoughtsonavenuesforfutureanalysisofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClause.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %       {n6  8    7    {nI.{n6  8    7    {nTheUncertainAcademicDebateB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n %       {n{n6  8    7    {nA.TheIntroductionofthePhrase{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀintothe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{nB3 BdB        {n%       {n6  8    7    {nThreeclausesinArticleIofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀshapethenationalgovernment'staxingpower.First,indescribingthecompositionoftheHouseofRepresentatives,SectionTwosaysthat Representativesand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀshallbeapportionedamongtheseveralStateswhichmaybeincludedwithinthisUnion,accordingtotheirrespectiveNumbers.... %   {n48    5  {n176  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSecond,SectionEightprovides: TheCongressshallhavePowerTolayandcollectTaxes,Duties,ImpostsandExcises,topaytheDebtsandprovideforthecommonDefenceandgeneralWelfareoftheUnitedStates;butallDuties,ImpostsandExcisesshallbeuniformthroughouttheUnited%  {n6  8    7    {n*5276  8    7    {nԀStates. %  {n458    5  {n186  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndthird,SectionNinelimitsthetaxingpowerbydictatingthat NoCapitation,orother{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {n,{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀshallbelaid,unlessinProportiontotheCensusorenumerationhereinbeforedirectedtobetaken. %  {n48    5  {n196  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSohowdidthenationalgovernment'staxingpowertakeshape?B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nUndertheArticlesofConfederation,thefederalgovernmenthadnotaxingauthority.%  {n418    5  {n206  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀInstead,ithadtoaskthestatesforfundsinproportiontothevalueofthestates'respectivelands.%  {n48    5  {n216  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIfthestateschosenottocomply,theyfacednorepercussions,sothestates'complianceratewasapaltry37%.%  {n48    5  {n226  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatleftthefederalgovernmentimpotentifithadtofacewar,rebellion,oranyothernationalcrisis.%  {n48    5  {n236  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSowhenthedelegatestotheConstitutionalConventionarrivedinPhiladelphia,taxationwasnearthetopoftheagenda.%  {n48    5  {n246  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nAttheconvention,%  {n4@8    5  {n256  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀaftermuchdebateovertheproperprinciplebywhichtoallocaterepresentationinthelowerhouse,GouverneurMorrismovedtointroduceintothe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀarequirementthat taxationshallbeinproportiontoRepresentation. %  {n4F8    5  {n266  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIn%  {n6  8    7    {n*5286  8    7    {nԀresponsetoobjections,includingGeorgeMason'sfearthatitmight drivetheLegislaturetotheplanofRequisitions, %  {n48    5  {n276  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀMorristhenintroducedthecriticaldistinctionbetweendirectand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.Heproposedtoaddresstheobjections byrestrainingtheruleto{n6  8    7    {ndirect6  8    7    {nԀtaxation sothat [w]ithregardto{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀon{n6  8    7    {nexports6  8    7    {nԀ&imports&onconsumption,therulewouldbeinapplicable. %  {n48    5  {n286  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSolimitingtherulewouldnotintroduceinequalitybetweenthestates,hethought,because [n]otwithstandingwhathadbeensaidtothecontraryhewaspersuadedthattheimports&consumptionwereprettynearlyequalthroughouttheUnion. %  {n48    5  {n296  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJamesWilson,afuturememberofthe{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀCourt, approvedtheprinciple,butcouldnotseehowitcouldbecarriedintoexecution;unlessrestrainedtodirecttaxation. %  {n4 8    5  {n306  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nLater,theConventionaddedaspecific clauserequiringcapitationtaxestobeapportionedaccordingtothecensus. %   {n48    5  {n316  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThen,whenthefinaldraftofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀemergedfromtheCommitteeonStyleandArrangement,thecapitationand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {n-{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀprovisionsmergedintothecurrentlanguagerequiringapportionmentofa Capitation,orother{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {n,{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {n. % ! {n4K8    5  {n326  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% "     {n6  8    7    {nBeforethatfinalversion,however,oneotherbriefmentionof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwasmade.OnAugust20,lateintheconventionbutbeforethedraftwenttotheCommitteeonStyleandArrangement,RufusKing askedwhatwastheprecisemeaningof{n6  8    7    {ndirect6  8    7    {nԀtaxation?Nooneanswd[sic]. % # {n4U8    5  {n336  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % $     {n6  8    7    {n% % {n6  8    7    {n*5296  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nB.AcademicDisagreementB3 BdB        {n% &     {n6  8    7    {nOvertheyears,manyacademicshavedrawnfromthatpageinMadison'snotestheconclusionthattheterm {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n wassimplydevoidofmeaningwhentheFramersplaceditinthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.% ' {n48    5  {n346  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀOthershaveconcludedthattheFramersmusthavehadareasonfordifferentiatingbetweendirectand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n,andtheyhaveofferedinterpretationsoftheirown.% ( {n48    5  {n356  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀTakentogether,thosetheoriesofferaspectrumofpossiblemeaningsforthephraserangingfromnugatorytoexpansive.Webrieflysurveythoseviews,startingfromdisregardingtheclausealtogetherandmovingtothemostexpansivereading.Oursurveyisnotcomprehensive,butitoffersasenseofthepossiblemeanings {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n couldcarry.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% )     {n6  8    7    {nProfessorBruceAckermancontendsthatweshouldsimplyignoretherequirementthatCongressapportionall{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.% * {n48    5  {n366  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHe% + {n6  8    7    {n*5306  8    7    {nԀbelievesthatbecauseGouverneurMorrisintroducedtherequirementthatCongressapportion{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀaspartofadealwiththeslavestates,weshoulddisregarditinlightoftherepudiationofslaveryintheReconstructionAmendments.% , {n4Y8    5  {n376  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀPerhaps,hesays, somefuturecourtmightfinditselfobligedbytheexpresslanguageofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀtostrikedownaclassic CapitationTax. % - {n4j8    5  {n386  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀBeyondthatnarrowexample,though,ProfessorAckermanwouldhavethecourtsrefusetoclassifyanyothertaxasa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.% . {n48    5  {n396  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% /     {n6  8    7    {nNextcomeswhatwewillcallthepragmaticapproach.DawnJohnsenandWalterDellingerbreakwithProfessorAckermanandargueinsteadforthisapproachbecausethey mustassumethattheFramersincludedthephrase orotherdirect following capitation forareason, and constitutionaltextmaynotbeignoredsimplybecauseitwastheproductofcompromiseratherthanthoughtfulpolicy--evencompromiseinextricablyinfectedbytheevilsofslavery. % 0 {n48    5  {n406  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀUndertheirreading,onlycapitations,slavetaxes,andtaxesonrealpropertyare{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.% 1 {n48    5  {n416  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀTheytakethoselimitsfromtheirreadingoftheJustices'opinionsin{n6  8    7    {nHyltonv.UnitedStates6  8    7    {n.% 2 {n4;8    5  {n426  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀOntopofthat categorical meaning,theyadda functional rule:onlyataxthatcanbeapportionedsensibly,with justandequitable results,canbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.% 3 {n4?8    5  {n436  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThefunctionalruleadmitsofsomecircularity--ataxcanonlybedirectifitcanbeapportioned,andwhen% 4 {n6  8    7    {n*5316  8    7    {nԀitisdeemeddirectitmustbeapportioned--butJohnsenandDellingercontendthatitaccuratelydescribeshowtheSupremeCourthasinterpretedthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClauseformostofourhistory.% 5 {n4e8    5  {n446  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% 6     {n6  8    7    {nSlightlymoreexpansively,JosephDodgearguesthat{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀislimitedto requisitions,capitationtaxes,andtaxesontangibleproperty. % 7 {n4v8    5  {n456  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAfterfirstdiscussingandrejectingthepriortwointerpretations,Dodgedrawshisprinciplefromseveralsources.6  8    7    {nFirst,hedescribesthe unanimousagreementinhistoricalsources,legislativeandexecutivepractice,andjudicialdoctrinethat {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n encompassestaxesonrealestate. % 8 {n4$8    5  {n466  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSecond,hedecidesthatanytaxthatissubjecttoapportionmentmusthave {n6  8    7    {nadefinitegeographicallocationinastate6  8    7    {n becausethenationalgovernmentmustknowhowmuchofanitemexistswithineachstate'sborderstoproperlyextractthatstate'sshareofthetax.% 9 {n48    5  {n476  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThird,henotesthedifficultyofdetermining whatconstitutesarealestatetax. % : {n48    5  {n486  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndfourth,heexplainsthestates'comparativeadvantageintaxingtangiblepersonalpropertyandthenationalgovernment'scomparativeadvantageintaxingintangibleproperty,income,andothereasilymovableformsofvalue.% ; {n4x8    5  {n496  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatcombinationofhistoricalsourcesandpolicyconsiderationsleadstohisconclusionthattangiblepersonalpropertyisthebestplacetodrawthelinebetweendirectand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.% < {n4L8    5  {n506  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% =     {n6  8    7    {nFinally,andmostbroadly,ProfessorJensenhasarguedinnumerouspiecesthatthelinebetweendirectand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀis% > {n6  8    7    {n*5326  8    7    {nԀwhetherthetaxisimposeddirectlyonanindividualandisnot shiftable ;whetherthepersonpayingthetaxcan,atleastintheory,passtheburdenofthetaxontosomeoneelse.% ? {n48    5  {n516  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJensenoffersthisexample:takeawidgetsellerthatfacesanewfivepercenttaxonits$1widgets.% @ {n48    5  {n526  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀItcanpassthattaxontoconsumersbysellingitswidgetsfor$1.05,sothetaxisshiftable.% A {n48    5  {n536  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀEconomicrealities,likeacompetitorwhodoesnotfacethetaxburden,mayforcethesellertoinsteadpaythetaxitself,butthatdoesnotchangethenatureofthetaxasshiftable.% B {n4T8    5  {n546  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀOnJensen'stheory,ataxthatisatleasttheoreticallyshiftableisindirect,andataxthatcannotpossiblybeshiftedisdirect.% C {n4d8    5  {n556  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% D     {n6  8    7    {nThroughoutthesescholars'sometimesheated% E {n48    5  {n566  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀdebateoverthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClause'smeaning,nonehascloselyexaminedtheClause'soriginalpublicmeaning.Weturntocorpuslinguisticsfortheinsightitoffersintothatfacetoftheinterpretivequestion.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % F     {n6  8    7    {n% G {n6  8    7    {n*5336  8    7    {nԀII.{n6  8    7    {nCorpusLinguisticsAnalysisof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {n and {n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n B3 BdB        {n% H     {n6  8    7    {nTofindgreatercontextforthemeaningof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n inthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,wesearchedfor {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n and {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n intheCorpusofFounding-EraAmericanEnglish(COFEA).Inthissection,wewilldescribecorpuslinguisticsandhowitworks,thenbrieflydescribeCOFEA.Thenwewillanalyzethefindingsfromourcorpuslinguisticsanalysis.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % I     {n{n6  8    7    {nA.CorpusLinguisticsB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n % J     {n6  8    7    {n1.WhatItIsandHowItWorksB3 BdB        {n% K     {n6  8    7    {nCorpuslinguisticsisbasedonthesimpleideathatthebestwaytodetermineordinarymeaningis toanalyzerealexamplesoflanguageasitisactuallyused. % L {n48    5  {n576  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAtitsmostbasiclevel,corpuslinguisticsissimplyamethodfordeterminingmeaninginwhichoneusesarandomsampleofrelevantsourcesthatuseaparticularwordorphrase.LawyersdoaninformalversionofthiswhentheysearchWestlawtolookathowabunchofcasesuseaparticularwordorphraseinordertodetermineitsmeaning.Corpuslinguisticsisawaytoformalizethisprocessand,hopefully,makeitmoreaccurateandreplicable.Themainadvantagesofusingcorpuslinguisticsare(1)itpreventscherry-pickingsources,(2)itallowsforlargerandmorerepresentativesamplesizes,and(3)itlimitssourcestothosethatarerelevantforansweringtheparticularquestionatissue({n6  8    7    {ne.g.6  8    7    {n,fortheoriginalmeaningofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,onlyincludingsourcesfromtheFoundingera).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% M     {n6  8    7    {n% N {n6  8    7    {n*5346  8    7    {nԀCorpuslinguisticshaslongbeenusedbylinguistsandhasrecentlybeenimportedintolaw.% O {n4>8    5  {n586  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀItsgrowingpopularityinlegalcirclesstemsfromtwobeliefs:first,thatwordshavemeaning;andsecond,iftheordinarymeaningofalegaltextisdiscernible,thenweshouldfollowit.% P {n4B8    5  {n596  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIneffect,corpuslinguisticsoffersawaytotrytomakethesearchforordinarymeaningscientificandreplicable.% Q {n48    5  {n606  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatmakesitveryappealingto originalpublicmeaning originalists,whobelievethatthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀmeaningisbasedonthepublic'sunderstandingofitstextatthetimethestatesratifiedit.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% R     {n6  8    7    {nWhetheritalwayssucceedsinthosenobleaspirationsisasubjectofsomedebate.% S {n4^8    5  {n616  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButattheveryleast,itoffersenoughpromisetobeavaluabletoolthatlegalinterpretersshouldconsideraddingit totheirbelts. % T {n4n8    5  {n626  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% U     {n6  8    7    {nFirst,someonemustassembleanappropriate corpus --alargedatabaseofnaturallyoccurringlanguagethatwillberepresentativeofthepeoplewhoseuseofthewordtheresearcherhopestounderstand.% V {n48    5  {n636  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIf,forexample,anoriginalisthopestounderstandhowtheFoundinggenerationunderstoodthephrase establishmentofreligion, itwoulddonogoodtosearchinacorpusoftwenty-firstcenturynewspaperarticles.% W {n48    5  {n646  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀRather,thatresearcherwouldlookinacorpusofFounding-eratexts.Usinganappropriatecorpusisessential% X {n6  8    7    {n*5356  8    7    {nԀtotheinquiry-- [a]sinthecomputingterm garbagein,garbageout, corpuslinguisticanalysiscanbenobetterthanthecorpusoneisusing. % Y {n48    5  {n656  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% Z     {n6  8    7    {nAfterfindingorcreatinganappropriatecorpus,theresearcherhasseveralwaystoanalyzethedata.First,onecanlookgenerallytowordfrequencyovertimeandwithindifferenttypesofsources.% [ {n4q8    5  {n666  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSecond,onecanlooktocollocation,whichconsidersthetendencyofwords tobebiasedinthewaytheyco-occur. % \ {n48    5  {n676  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀWordsthatappearneareachotherwithuncommonfrequencyhavesomerelationship,thoughittakesfurtheranalysistodiscerntheirspecificrelationship.% ] {n48    5  {n686  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThird,onecanexamine theheartofcorpuslinguisticsanalysis :theconcordanceline.% ^ {n48    5  {n696  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% _     {n6  8    7    {nAconcordancelineis alistingofeachoccurrenceofthesoughtwordorpatternpresentedwiththewordssurroundingit. % ` {n4*8    5  {n706  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀBasically,eachconcordancelinelookslikeaGooglesearchresult--itcontainsasnippetoftext centeredonthewordorphrasesearched. % a {n48    5  {n716  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀForanexample,seeFigure1below.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % b     {n6  8    7    {n% c {n6  8    7    {n*5366  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nFigure1:Exampleofconcordancelinesfromasearchfor {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n inCOFEA.(Additionalcontextcanbeseenbyclickingoneachline.)B3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n% d     {n6  8    7    {nExaminingconcordancelinesallowsourhypotheticalresearchertoseehoweachoccurrenceofthewordwasusedincontext.% e {n48    5  {n726  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀ Itistheslowanddifficultanalysisofconcordancelines--thequalitativeaspectofcorpuslinguisticanalysis--thatusuallyprovidesthebestandmostimportantdataincorpuslinguisticanalysis. % f {n48    5  {n736  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% g     {n6  8    7    {nOnestartsbyidentifyingdifferent senses oftherelevantwordorphrase.Forexample,aresearcherinvestigatingtheSecondAmendmentcouldidentifytwopossiblesensesof beararms :thearmsofanursinemammalorcarryingweapons.Theresearcherthencodes(i.e.labels)differentconcordancelinesaccordingtowhichsenseisused.If,aftercodingenoughlines,thelattersensepredominatesovertheformer,itis strongevidence thattheSecondAmendmentdefendsourrighttocarryweaponsratherthanourrighttoconsumebears'arms.% h {n48    5  {n746  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAfteridentifyingsenses,theresearcher% i {n6  8    7    {n*5376  8    7    {nԀembarksuponthehardworkofcorpuslinguisticsanalysis--goingthrougheachconcordancelineanddeterminingwhichsenseitfitswithin.6  8    7    {nIfawordorphrasehasonlyafewhits,onecancodeeveryline.% j {n468    5  {n756  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀMoreoften,onewillcodeasufficientlylargesampleofthehitstoprovideconfidenceintheresults.% k {n48    5  {n766  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSuchanalysisisinherently qualitativeinnature, andthusintroducesanelementofsubjectivity.% l {n48    5  {n776  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIdeally,researcherscancounterthatsubjectivitybyhavingmultiplepeopleexaminethesameconcordancelinestoensureagreement.% m {n48    5  {n786  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAttheendofthatlong,laboriousprocess,theresearchershouldhavegreaterinsightintothefrequencywithwhichtherelevantpopulationusedeachsenseofawordorphrase.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% n     {n6  8    7    {nItisimportanttonote,however,thatalthoughonesensepredominatingoveranotheris strongevidencethatmeaningishowthattermorphrasewasmostcommonlyunderstood, itisnotdispositive.% o {n48    5  {n796  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀOften,corpuslinguisticswillbemostusefulindeterminingthescopeofordinarymeaningratherthanprovidingthesingle,correct,concretemeaningofaphrase.% p {n48    5  {n806  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀ Corpusdatamaytellussomethingabouttherelativefrequencyofthevariousmeanings,butthemostfrequentmeaningisnotnecessarilytheordinarymeaningincontext. % q {n48    5  {n816  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThus,althoughcorpuslinguisticscanshedlightonaword'sordinarymeaning,itcannotalonedeterminethat% r {n6  8    7    {n*5386  8    7    {nԀmeaning.CarissaByrneHessickoffersahelpfulexample.% s {n4C8    5  {n826  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀImagine,sheinvitesus, adisputeoverthescopeofastatutethatprovidesreliefforfloodvictims. % t {n4I8    5  {n836  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀInarelevantcorpus,onecouldeasilyimaginethatthemostfrequentlyusedsenseoffloodreferstoextremeflooding, suchasNewOrleansafterHurricaneKatrinain2005orHoustonduringHurricaneHarveyin2017, becausethoseeventsreceivemorenewscoverageandgeneratemorediscussionthansmaller-scalefloodsdo.% u {n48    5  {n846  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatanalysisisnotdispositiveofthequestion whethertheaverageAmericanwouldunderstandthestatutoryterm flood toincludethreeinchesofwaterinahomeowner'sbasementafteraneighboringwatermainburst. % v {n48    5  {n856  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀNowthatwehavebrieflyexplainedthebenefits,limitations,andtechniquesofcorpuslinguisticsanalysis,wecanturntoourchosencorpus.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % w     {n6  8    7    {n2.COFEAB3 BdB        {n% x     {n6  8    7    {nCOFEA,theCorpusofFounding-EraAmericanEnglish,isahistoricalcorpuscoveringtheperiodfrom 1760-1799--thebeginningofthereignofKingGeorgeIIIuntilthedeathofGeorgeWashington. % y {n48    5  {n866  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀItcombinestheEvansEarlyImprintSeries,theNationalArchivesFoundersPapersOnlineProject,andrelevantmaterialsfromHeinOnline.% z {n4Q8    5  {n876  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀTheEvansSeriescontains nearlytwo-thirdsofallbooks,pamphlets,andbroadsidesknowntohavebeenprintedinthiscountrybetween1640to1821. % { {n4_8    5  {n886  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀOfthosenearly40,000documents,approximately6,000wereavailableinfullysearchableform;COFEAcontainsthose6,000.% | {n48    5  {n896  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀTheFounders% } {n6  8    7    {n*5396  8    7    {nԀOnlinedatabasecontributedthe correspondenceandotherwritingsofsixmajorshapersoftheUnitedStates:GeorgeWashington,BenjaminFranklin,JohnAdams(andfamily),ThomasJefferson,AlexanderHamilton,andJamesMadison, includingthelettersthosesixreceivedfromotherFoundersandordinarycitizens.% ~ {n4[8    5  {n906  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndHeinOnlineprovidedlegalmaterialsfromtherelevantyearrange,includingstatutes,caselaw,legalpapers,legislativedebates,andthelike.%  {n48    5  {n916  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIntotal,COFEAcontains100,000textsandover150millionwords.%  {n48    5  {n926  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIt'snotperfect,%  {n48    5  {n936  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀbutit's thebesttoolwecurrentlyhave. %  {n4\8    5  {n946  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nB.OurCorpusAnalysisB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nOursearchfor {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n and {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n inCOFEAyielded1,161results(475forthesingular,686fortheplural).Initially,weanalyzedthefrequencyofresultswithineachsourceandbetweenyears.6  8    7    {nThen,aftercollocateanalysisofferedlittleinsight,weembarkedonthe hardworkofqualitativelyanalyzingconcordancelines. %  {n4l8    5  {n956  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀFirst,weidentifiedwhichsensesofthetermweshouldlookfor,whileremainingopentonewonesastheanalysisprogressed.Next,becausethereweretoomanyresultstocodeallofthem,weusedanonlinetooltocalculatehowmanyhitswewouldneedtoanalyzetogeta5%confidenceinterval(afterremovingunusablelineslikequotationsofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀorcongressionalindices,forexample).%  {n48    5  {n966  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀFinally,aftercodingfive-hundredhits(witheighty-eightexclusions%  {n48    5  {n976  8    7  6  8    7    {n),weanalyzedourdata.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5406  8    7    {nԀ1.GeneralFrequencyDataB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nTwotypesoffrequencyanalysisprovedinterestingwithregardto{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nFirst,weexaminedwhichcorporaourhitscamefrom.Wesawdramaticdisparitiesinthefrequencywithwhichoursearchtermsappearedinthedifferentsources:B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nFigure2:SourceDistributionasPercentageofHitsB3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nFigure3:Frequencyof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n and {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n bycorpusB3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5416  8    7    {nԀAsthepiechartshowsinFigure1,theoverwhelmingmajorityofourhitscamefromHeinOnline.MaterialsinHeinOnlineareprimarilylegal.%  {n48    5  {n986  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSothestrongrepresentationinHeinOnlinecanbe evidencethatthetermeitherhasalegalmeaning,oratleasthasmorerelevancetoalegalcontextcomparedtoanordinaryone. %  {n4j8    5  {n996  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatdisparityraisesthepossibilitythat {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n isalegaltermofartratherthanaphraseincommonparlance.%  {n48    5  {n1006  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButitisalsopossiblethatthetermsimplyhasgreatersaliencetoalegalcontextwithoutbeingatermofart.%  {n4c8    5  {n1016  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThus,thesourcecomparisontellsusthat {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n isapredominatelylegalterm,evenifitisnotnecessarilyatermofart.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nSecond,weexaminedwhichyearshadthemosthits.Wesawahugespikeforoneyear:B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nFigure4:Numberofhitsfor {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n(es) byyearinCOFEAB3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5426  8    7    {nԀIn1790,ayearandahalfafterthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀratification,{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀappears818timesinCOFEA.Thatsumrepresentsjustover70%ofthetotalhits,withmostofthosecomingfromcongressionaldebatesabouttheassumptionofstatedebtandwhethertoimposea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀtopayforit.Forcomparison,theyearwiththenext-mosthitswas1788,whentheratificationdebatesproducedseventy-threeusesofthesearched-forphrases.Therewerethirty-sevenhitsfor1787,theyearwiththemosthitsuntilthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwasratified;beforethat,theyearwiththemosthitswas1781,withonlyfivehits.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nFromthatdata,wecoulddrawtwopossibleconclusions.Ontheonehand,wecouldconcludethatthephrase {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n wassimplyamade-uptermthatrequiredlaterinterpretationbyCongress,thePresident,andthecourts,assomescholarsbelieve.Ontheotherhand,wecouldconcludethatitwasanunderstoodtermthatsimplyhadlimitedimportance,atleastamongthesourcesCOFEAdrawson,untilitreceivedattentionasalimitationonCongress'spowertotax.Again,thefrequencydatainisolationcannotanswerthatquestion.Soweturnnowtothesenseanalysis.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n2.SensesWeUsedB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nBecausewe(perhapsambitiously)soughttoanswertwoquestions,wecodedfortwodifferentcategoriesofsenses.Toanswerthelargerquestionofwhata{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀis,wecodedfor concreteuses of{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n(es)whenpossible.6  8    7    {nBythatwemeanconcordancelineswherewecoulddeterminefromthecontextwhatkindoftaxthespeakerreferredtoorhowhedecidedwhetherataxwouldbedirectornot.Whenwecouldnotcodefora concretesense, wethencodedtoanswerthenarrowerquestionwhetherpeopleunderstoodthephrase{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀattheFoundingand,ifso,anyframeofreferencetheyhadfortheterm.Wecalledthose determinatesenses. B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWederivedourconcretesensesprimarilyfromthedifferentacademicdefinitionsdescribedabove,butweultimatelyremovedoneandaddedone.Forremoval,we(unsurprisingly)foundno%  {n6  8    7    {n*5436  8    7    {nԀsupportforBruceAckerman'sdesiretoignoretheapportionmentrequirementinlightofitsroleintheconstitutionaldebateoverslavery,sowewillnotlistitasapossiblesense.Astothesenseweadded,wethoughtitcamefromasufficientlyreputablesourcetomeritinclusion--AlexanderHamilton.Inhisbriefin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {n,thecarriagetaxcase,Hamiltonarguedthat [t]hefollowingarepresumedtobetheonly{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n:capitationorpolltaxes.Taxesonlandsandbuildings.Generalassessments,whetheronthewholepropertyofindividuals,orontheirwholerealorpersonalestate;allelsemustofnecessitybeconsideredas{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n. %  {n4t8    5  {n1026  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀEssentially,Hamilton'sapproachisJohnsenandDellinger'scategoricalrulediscussedabovewithtwocrucialchanges:first,headded generalassessments onindividuals'wholepropertyorwholeestate;second,hedidnotargueforJohnsenandDellinger'sfunctionallimitationonthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {n-{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀrule.%  {n4#8    5  {n1036  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nThatleavesthefollowingsenses,withtheshorthandweusedforgraphicsinparentheses:B3 BdB        {n     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n AtaxthatiscapableofapportionmentasJohnsenandDellingerdescribeit(apportionable);B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n TheHamiltonian baseline ofrealestate,capitations,andgeneralassessments(baseline);B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Dodge's alltangibleproperty approach(allpersonalproperty);B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Jensen's anytaxthatisnotshiftable approach(notshiftable).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nItbearsnotingthatallofthesetermsoverlap,suchthateachsensenecessarilyincludesanytaxthatwouldfitwithintheprior.AVenndiagramhelpstodisplaytherelationship.SeeFigure5.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5446  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nFigure5:Venndiagramofsensesof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n B3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nToday,theonly{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀthatcouldpossiblybeapportionedina justandequitable fashionisacapitation.%  {n48    5  {n1046  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAsacapitationispartofallotherdefinitions,the apportionable meaningfitswithintheothers.Next,alltaxeswithintheHamiltonianbaselinefallonproperty,soitisasubsetofthe alltangibleproperty meaning.Andfinally,asJensenexplainsindefininghisshiftablenessapproach,notaxontheownershipofpropertyisshiftable.%  {n48    5  {n1056  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nAswediscussinfurtherdetailbelow,thatoverlap--combinedwiththeheavyweightofCongressionalRecordsources--makesitdifficulttoreachafirmconclusionastothecorrectsenseof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWehadlessacademicguidanceonourdeterminatesenses.Initially,weexpectedtohaveonlytwo:usedasanacceptedtermandtreatedasambiguous.Butasweconductedthecorpusanalysis,we%  {n6  8    7    {n*5456  8    7    {nԀdeterminedthatwecouldusetwomoreparticulardeterminatesenses.Thus,ourfinalsense-codingincluded:B3 BdB        {n     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Usedasanunderstoodtermwithoutquestioning(acceptedterm);B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Usedtorefertostate{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ(state{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n);B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Usedincontradistinctionto{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ(allnon-{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n);B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n     {n    M  M   {n   M    {n6  8    7    {n Andtreatedasambiguousoraccompaniedwithexpressionsofuncertainty(treatedasambiguous).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWealmostexclusivelyusedthedeterminatesenseswhenwecouldnotdecideonaconcretesense(thoughinafewrarecaseswedouble-codedatermasusingbothaconcretesenseandthestate-{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {n-{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀsense).Thus,wehadtoaddalloftheconcreteusestothenon-ambiguousdeterminateusestofullyanswerthequestionwhether {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n wassimplyanunknownterm.Nowthatoursensesareclear,wecanpresentourdata.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n3.SenseAnalysisB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nFirst,inouranalysisofthe199concreteusesoftheterm,wefoundthatdiscussionsofthebaselineconceptionofa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀpredominatedoverallotherconceptions.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nNotably,wefoundonlyoneconcordancelinethatused{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀinthe apportionable sense.In1794,RepresentativeTheodoreSedgwickofMassachusettsarguedthatacarriagetaxmustnotbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀbecause asseveraloftheStateshadfewornocarriages,nosuchapportionmentcouldbemade,andthedutyofcoursecouldnotbeimposed. %  {n4w8    5  {n1066  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButjustafewparagraphsearlier,hehadalsoconcededthat,ofcourse, acapitationtaxandtaxesonlandandonpropertyandincomegenerally,weredirectcharges,aswellintheimmediateasultimatesourcesofcontribution. %  {n48    5  {n1076  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀBecauseit%  {n6  8    7    {n*5466  8    7    {nԀisunclearhowthoseprincipleswouldinteract--if,asforJohnsenandDellinger,%  {n48    5  {n1086  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀthespecificexamplesof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀmightyieldtothebroaderapportionabilityprinciple--weerredonthesideofcodingitasbothbaselineandapportionable.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nFigure6:Distributionofsensesof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n and {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n B3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nSecond,ouranalysisofdeterminateusesof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n--especiallyonceweaccountedfortheuseswecodedasconcrete--underminesthenotionthat theterm'smeaningwasuncleartotheFramersthemselves. %  {n48    5  {n1096  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5476  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nFigure7:UsageDeterminacyB3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nFigure8:Percentageofsensesof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n(es)B3 BdB         {n     {n6  8    7    {nTABULARORGRAPHICMATERIALSETFORTHATTHISPOINTISNOTDISPLAYABLEB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5486  8    7    {nԀThatonlythreeofthe412concordancelineswecodedexpresseduncertaintyorconfusionastotheterm'smeaningseemstoresolvethequestionthattheyeardata,byshowingaspikeinusesafterthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀratification,raises.Ratherthanbeinganundefinedterm,theterm {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n hadadefinitemeaningbutlittlesalience,atleastinthesourcesinCOFEA,untilthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀgrantedthepowertoimpose{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀtoCongressandlimitedthatpowerwiththeapportionmentrequirement.Thatconclusionalsofindssupportinthefrequentrecourseofconcordancelinestostatetaxesasabasisforunderstandingwhata{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwas--ifthestates'normalmeansofimposingtaxes,otherthanstateimposts,weregenerallyunderstoodtobe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n,thenthetermnecessitatedlittlediscussion.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n{n6  8    7    {nC.AnalysisB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWhatcanwedrawfromourcorpusdata,then?Wewillnoteattheoutsetofouranalysistwoproblemsthatweakenedourabilitytodrawfirmconclusions.Thenwewillnonethelessofferatleasttentativefindings,andwewillnoteareasoffutureresearchthatourdeterminate-useanalysisindicatescouldprovefruitfulinunderstandingtheoriginalmeaningof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Finally,wewillofferourthoughtsaboutthevalueofcorpuslinguisticsinansweringdifficultinterpretivequestions.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n1.CaveatsB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nTherearetwoissueswehadtoaccountforinourfinalanalysis.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nFirst,asweshowedearlier,theoverwhelmingmajorityofourhitscamefromHeinOnline.6  8    7    {nOntopofthelegaltiltthatshows,almosttheentiretyofthose834hitscamefromHeinOnline'scollectionofthedebatesintheHouseofRepresentatives.Morespecifically,theycamefromdebatesintheHouseaboutwhethertoimposea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ(and,ifonemustbeimposed,howbesttodoso),aswellasfromdiscussionoftheactualbilltoimposeataxonland,houses,andslaves.Indiscussingwhetherandhowtoimposea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n,mostRepresentativesacceptedthatataxonrealestate%  {n6  8    7    {n*5496  8    7    {nԀwouldbethemostmanageableandconstitutedthequintessential{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Thus,thatcontextmayhavebiasedthedatainfavorofthe baseline formulation.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nSecond,especiallyinlightofthefirstissue,theoverlappingnatureofthesensesmakesitdifficulttoconcludethatanarrowersenseofthetermnecessarilysetsitsupperbound.ItissimilartoCarissaHessick'sfloodproblem.%  {n4-8    5  {n1106  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJustaseveryoneagreesthatthepost-Katrinafloodingisaflood,everyoneintheFoundinggenerationunderstoodthatataminimumataxonlandwouldbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n,solandtaxeswereacommonpointofreference.Butthatdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatlandtaxesexhaustthephrase'smeaning.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n2.FindingsB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nAfterthatnecessarybitofthroatclearing,wecanatlastofferourfindings.%  {n48    5  {n1116  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀFirst,theclearpoint:theSupremeCourtwasincorrectin{n6  8    7    {nNationalFederationofIndependentBusinessesv.Sebelius6  8    7    {n,atleastwhenitclaimedthat [e]venwhenthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClausewaswrittenitwasunclearwhatelse,otherthanacapitation(alsoknownasa headtax ora polltax ),mightbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. %  {n48    5  {n1126  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIfnothingelse,everyoneacceptedthatalandtaxwasa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Morebroadly,though,thedatashowveryfewinstancesofpeopleexpressinguncertaintyaboutthephrase'smeaning--inastaggering99.28%ofconcordancelines,thespeakerspokeconfidentlyabouttheterm,evenwhenhedidnotofferaconcretesense.Anditseemsquiteclearthat,ataminimum,thetypesof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀthatfellwithinAlexanderHamilton'sbaselinecategory(land,houses,slaves,capitations,andgeneralassessments)wereunanimouslyacceptedas{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.Thus,ourcorpusanalysiscandisprovethemyththat%  {n6  8    7    {n*5506  8    7    {nԀtheFounderspluckedthephrase {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n fromthinairandpluggeditintothe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nSecond,althoughthecorpusdatadonotprovideaconcrete,usabledefinitionortestforwhattheconstitutionalphrase {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n means,theyoffersomeclarityastoparticularuses.Forexample,ithaslongbeenacceptedwisdom,evenamongprominentproponentsofawealthtaxlikeThomasPiketty,thatsuchataxwouldbeunconstitutional.%  {n48    5  {n1136  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSomescholarswhohopetoseeawealthtaxenactedhavechallengedthatacceptedwisdom.%  {n48    5  {n1146  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButawealthtaxistheexactkindof [g]eneralassessment[],whetheronthewholepropertyofindividuals,orontheirwholerealorpersonalestate, thatHamiltonnotedlayattheheartofdirecttaxation.%  {n4<8    5  {n1156  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAssuch,ourcorpusanalysisindicatesthattheacceptedwisdomiscorrect.Italsoconfirmstheconventionalwisdomthatanytaxthatfallsonrealpropertymustbeapportionedtopassconstitutionalmuster.%  {n4@8    5  {n1166  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nOurmore-particularized-determinate-useanalysisalsooffersvaluableinsightintoavenuesofresearchthatmightfurtherclarifywhatexactlya{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀis.First,itsfrequentuseasencompassingallnon-{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀsupportsErikJensen'sviewthatthetwotermsconstitutetheentiretyofthetaxingpower.%  {n48    5  {n1176  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSoanindirectwaytodefinetheoriginalmeaningof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwouldbetodetermine%  {n6  8    7    {n*5516  8    7    {nԀconcretedefinitionsofthethreetypesof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n:imposts,duties,andexcises.%  {n48    5  {n1186  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀMoreparticularly,findingthelinebetweenanexcise,aduty,anda{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀcouldbedispositivebecausetheSupremeCourthasoftencharacterizedtaxeschallengedasdirectasinsteadbeingeitheranexciseoraduty.%  {n4&8    5  {n1196  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIfalitigantcanshowthatataxisneitheradutynoranexcise,thenacourtwilllikelyfindittobea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Second,theterm'susetorefertostatetaxesindicatesthattherewouldbegreatvalueinananalysisofstatetaxationpracticesattheFounding.Tothatend,SecretaryoftheTreasuryOliverWolcottJr.'sreporttotheHouseofRepresentativesonaplantolaya{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀoffersanexcellentstartingpoint.%  {n48    5  {n1206  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀItdescribesstatetaxingmethodologiesinsomedetailand,ataminimum,reinforcestheconclusionthatageneralassessmentonaperson'spropertyisa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.%  {n48    5  {n1216  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {n3.ObservationsaboutCorpusLinguisticsB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nAtleastinmattersofconstitutionalinterpretation,wearepersuadedthatcorpuslinguisticsisausefultoolfordeterminingthescopeofaphrase'spossiblemeanings,butthatitalonewillrarelybeenoughtoprovewhichsenseiscorrect.%  {n4F8    5  {n1226  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButitcandefinitivelydisprovetheoriesandsenses,aswehaveshown.Inthecontextwestudied,itdisprovedboththenotionthat {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n hasnooriginalmeaningtobefoundandtheclaimthatitsmeaningturnson%  {n6  8    7    {n*5526  8    7    {nԀtheapportionabilityofaparticulartax.Thatmakescorpuslinguisticsavaluabletoolinanyoriginalist'stoolbelt.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nThatbeingsaid,itisatoolthatveryfewjudgeswillbeabletoemployoftheirownaccord.Evenananalysisthatdoesnotmeetthegoldstandard--asinglecoderusingonlyasampleoftheconcordancelines--tookwelloverahundredhours,farmorethancanbedevotedbyacourtofappealsjudgetotheaveragecase.Itistrue,asJusticeLeeandStephenMouritsenargue,thatitwillbea relativelyrarecase whereitisnecessaryandusefultoturntocorpuslinguistics.%  {n4N8    5  {n1236  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButeveninthosecases,judgeswillprobablyhavetorelyonlitigantsor,morelikely,interestedprofessorsorresearcherstoconductthecorpusanalysis.Eventhen,though,theinherentsubjectivityofsensedivisionmeansthatjudgeswillhavetocheckthoseinterestedparties'worktobesurethattheirinterestsinacase'soutcome--consciouslyorunconsciously--didnotleadthemtodressupadvocacywiththescientificglossofcorpuslinguistics.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nInshort,corpuslinguisticsisavaluabletoolinthesearchformeaning.Butitsuseistemperedbythelargenumberofhoursitdemandsofitsusers.Andtheinherentsubjectivityofsomeaspectsoftheanalysispresentsseriousrisksforbiasedanalysesmisleadingcourts.Assuch,advocatesforcorpuslinguisticsshouldnotjustfocusonteachingjudgeshowtodoitandextollingthevirtuesofcorpuslinguistics;theyshouldalsoteachjudgeshowtorecognizedubiousanalysesandexplainthereasonstobeskepticaloflitigantsbearingcorpora.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n %      {n6  8    7    {nIII.{n{n6  8    7    {nHyltonv.UnitedStates6  8    7    {nԀandItsImplicationsforOurAnalysisB3 BdB        {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWiththecorpusresultsinhand,wenowturntothefirstcaseinwhichtheSupremeCourthadtheopportunitytoprovideananswertoRufusKing'squestionaboutwhata{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀis.In{n6  8    7    {nHylton%  {n6  8    7    {n*5536  8    7    {nԀv.UnitedStates%  {n48    5  {n1246  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀtheCourtheldthatcarriagetaxeswerenot {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n, butitdidnotofferacomprehensivedefinitionoftheterm.Nonethelesstheparties'argumentsandtheCourt'sseriatimopinionsareusefulforourpurposesbecausetheyrevealhowanearlydisputeoverconstitutionalmeaningwaslitigatedandresolved.6  8    7    {nOurfindingsfromCOFEAallowforassessmentoftheextenttowhichtheargumentsandopinionsin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀalignedwithrecordedlinguisticusageatthetime.Inaddition,themethodologiesfollowedbythelitigantsandtheCourtin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀprovidecluestofashiontheappropriateuseofcorpuslinguisticstoday.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀconcernedtheconstitutionalityofafederaltaxonvarioustypesofcarriagesthatCongressimposedin1794.%  {n48    5  {n1256  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀCarriagetaxeswereakintoluxurytaxes--morepoliticallypalatablethan,say,ataxonwhiskey.Therewasnevera CarriageRebellion. Instead,theCarriageActgeneratedcontroversyinCongressbecauseoftheconstitutionalquestionsitraised.IntheHousedebate,Madisonarguedthatthecarriagetaxeswereunconstitutionalbecausetheywere{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀanddidnotsatisfythe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀapportionmentrequirement.%  {n48    5  {n1266  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButCongressmanFisherAmesofMassachusettsrespondedthatthelegislationneednotcomplybecausethecarriagedutieswereindirectexcisetaxes.%  {n4U8    5  {n1276  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nThiscongressionalsparringoverthe CarriageTaxLaw, asitwascalled,wasdrivenlessbycarriagesthanbylargerissuesastothescopeofCongress'spowertotax.%  {n4e8    5  {n1286  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJohnTaylorofCaroline(Hylton'scounselinthecircuitcourt)describedaparadeofhorriblesifthestatutewereallowedtostand: Theexciseisaprecedent,%  {n6  8    7    {n*5546  8    7    {nԀenablingCongresstointerceptsuchaportionofaman'svictuals,drink,andcloathing,thefruitsofhisownmanuallabour,astheymaythinkproper--andunderthatofthecarriagetax,everyotherspeciesofproperty,isexposed. %  {n48    5  {n1296  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWhenthecasecamebeforetheSupremeCourtthenextyear,HamiltonandCharlesLee(theUnitedStatesAttorneyGeneral)werethenaturalchoicestodefendtheconstitutionalityoftheCarriageActintheSupremeCourt.AsSecretaryoftheTreasury,Hamiltonhadproposedtaxationofnotjustcarriagesbutalsoanarrayofpersonalproperty.Ontopofthat,hewasahighlyskilledappellateadvocateandhadretiredfrompublicofficeinearly1795,shortlybefore{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀwasarguedinthecircuitcourt.AsuccessfuldefenseoftheCarriageActwouldsignificantlyfurtherHamilton'sfinancialvision.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nButbeforethatcouldhappen,thegovernmentneededanopponent.Findingoneprovednoeasytask.Thereasonwasjurisdictional:atthetime,theSupremeCourthada$2000amount-in-controversythreshold,%  {n4`8    5  {n1306  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀandtheapplicabletaxesandpenaltiestotaled$16percarriage,%  {n48    5  {n1316  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀwhichmeantthataplaintiffhadtoowetaxesonalotofcarriagestoobtainSupremeCourtreview.Toovercomethatobstacle,thedefendant,VirginiabusinessmanDanielHylton,enteredintoajointstipulationwiththegovernmentthathe ownedpossessedandkeptonehundred&twentyfivechariotsfortheconveyanceofpersons. %  {n48    5  {n1326  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThesubmissionalsoclaimedthatthecarriageswerekept exclusivelyfor[theDefendant's]ownseparateuse,andnottoletoutforhire,orfortheconveyanceofpersonsfor%  {n6  8    7    {n*5556  8    7    {nԀhire. %  {n48    5  {n1336  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAddedup,the$16intaxesandpenaltiesimposedpercoachgaveasumequaltoexactlythejurisdictionalamount.%  {n4`8    5  {n1346  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀNooneontheCourtquestionedwhetherHyltonwasreallysuchanavidcarriagecollector.NordidanyoneclaimaconflictofinterestwhenHylton'sson-in-lawAlexanderCampbellreplacedTaylorasHylton'scounsel,despitethefactthatCampbellalsoservedasUnitedStatesAttorneyfortheDistrictofVirginiaandhadeven playedaroleinthecaseonbehalfoftheGovernmentatthecircuitcourt. %  {n4o8    5  {n1356  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀCampbell'sco-counselwasJaredIngersoll,theAttorneyGeneralofPennsylvania.TheDepartmentoftheTreasurypaidtheattorneys'feesforbothsides.%  {n48    5  {n1366  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nTheSupremeCourtelidedthosecuriouscircumstancestoaddressthesubstantivequestionpresented: whetherthelawofCongress,ofthe5{n6  8    7    {nth6  8    7    {nԀofJune,1794,entitled Anacttolaydutiesuponcarriages,fortheconveyanceofpersons, isunconstitutionalandvoid? %  {n48    5  {n1376  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {n%  {n6  8    7    {n*5566  8    7    {nԀManyinvolvedin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀhadpersonalexperienceinthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀcreation.Twooftheadvocates(HamiltonandIngersoll)andtwooftheJusticesontheCourt(WilliamPatersonandJamesWilson)%  {n48    5  {n1386  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀwereFramersofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.%  {n4t8    5  {n1396  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThoseJustices,alongwithtwooftheotherJustices(JamesIredellandWilliamCushing),alsohadparticipatedintheirrespectivestates'debatesoveritsratification.%  {n48    5  {n1406  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀOneoftheprincipalcongressionalopponentsofthecarriagetax(Madison)alsoparticipatedintheadoptionandratificationofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.Thefactthattheverypeopleresponsibleforthelegaltermsindisputewerethesamepeoplewhoendeduparguingoverwhatthosetermsmeantgivespausetoanycorpuslinguisticsendeavorthatpurportstodetermineconstitutionalmeaningwithabsolutecertainty.Indeed,thedisputepittedco-authorsof{n6  8    7    {nTheFederalistPapers6  8    7    {nԀ(MadisonandHamilton)againsteachother,soitisfairtosaythattheconstitutionalquestionwasclose.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nOneexplanationforthedisagreement,ofcourse,mightbethattherelevanttextsimplywasambiguous.ThatwaswhatHamiltonarguedtotheCourt:B3 BdB        {n     {n    M  M   {n    M    {n6  8    7    {nWhatisthedistinctionbetween{n6  8    7    {ndirect6  8    7    {nԀand{n{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n?Itisamatterofregretthattermssouncertainandvagueinsoimportantapointaretobefoundinthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.Weshallseekinvainforanyantecedentsettledlegalmeaningtotherespectiveterms--thereisnone.%  {n4m8    5  {n1416  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n     {n6  8    7    {nOneJustice(Paterson)alsofoundthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀtobeunclear,buthefoundambiguitynotinthedistinctionbetweendirectand%  {n6  8    7    {n*5576  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n,butratherintheparties'agreementthatthecarriagetaxmustfallwithinoneoffourexplicitcategoriesmentionedinthenation'scharter:aduty,impost,excise,or{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.%  {n4}8    5  {n1426  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJusticePatersonnotedthat [t]heargumentonbothsidesturnsinacircle. %  {n4+8    5  {n1436  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHyltonarguedthatthecarriagetaxwas notaduty,impost,orexcise,andthereforemustbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n, whilethegovernmentcontendedthecarriagetaxwasnota{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n, andthereforemustbeadutyorexcise. %  {n48    5  {n1446  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThecircularargumentsoverthecategorieslednowhere,JusticePatersonconcluded,inpartbecausesomecategorieswereill-defined: Whatisthenaturalandcommon,ortechnicalandappropriate,meaningofthewords,dutyandexcise,itisnoteasytoascertain.Theypresentnoclearandpreciseideatothemind.Differentpersonswillannexdifferentsignificationstotheterms. %  {n48    5  {n1456  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nWhereHamiltonandPatersonsawambiguity,however,theotherJusticesfoundclarity.JusticeIredellflatlystated, Ithinkthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀitselfaffordsaclearguidetodecidethecontroversy, andJusticeChaselikewisethoughttheconstitutionaltextadmittedofnouncertainty.%  {n48    5  {n1466  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAnd,althoughtheCourtrejectedHylton'sargumentthatthecarriagetaxwasa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n,amajorityoftheJusticesseemedtoagreewithhimthattherelevantconstitutionaltextcouldbeplainlyread.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nLackofambiguityalsounderlaytheargumentsinthecircuitcourt.Taylor,onbehalfofHylton,notedthattheCarriageAct,byitsterms,imposed6  8    7    {n dutiesand{n6  8    7    {nrates6  8    7    {n andthatboth duty and rate weredefinedinvarioussecondarysourcesasformsof%  {n6  8    7    {n*5586  8    7    {nԀtaxes.%  {n48    5  {n1476  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀFromthisbasishearguedthat {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n includeddutiesandratesthatweredirectlyimposed,andthatbecausetheActdirectlyimposeddutiesandratesoncarriages,itwasa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwithinthemeaningofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.%  {n488    5  {n1486  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀWickham,forthegovernment,rejectedTaylor'slogicasinconsistentwithothersourcesthatdifferentiatedbetweendirectand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.He contend[ed]that,longbeforethe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀoftheUnitedStateswasframed,ataxupontherevenueorincomeofindividuals,wasconsideredandwellunderstoodtobea{n{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Ataxupontheirexpences,orconsumptionan{n{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n--Thatthisisataxonexpenceorconsumption,andthereforean{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. %  {n48    5  {n1496  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nThatbothWickhamandTaylorwerecertainastomeaning--albeitwithdiametricallyoppositeconclusionsastowhetheracarriagetaxfitthatmeaning--isconsistentwithourcorpusfindingsthatpeoplewroteandspokeofdirecttaxationasiftheyknewwhatitmeant.AmajorityoftheJusticeswhoissuedopinionsinthecasesharedthelitigants'confidenceinclaritytoo.Byaddingtheargumentthatthelinebetweendirectand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwas,infact,fuzzy,Hamiltonexpressedviewsthatseemtohavebeeninthedistinctminority.%  {n48    5  {n1506  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nHowever,alloftheJusticesendeduprulinginfavorofHamilton'sclient,butreachedtheirrulingthroughdifferentroutes.SomeJusticesopinedmorethanothersastowhattaxescouldbeconsidered {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n. However,noneofthempurportedtoprovideacompletelistoraconcretedefinition.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nForJusticeChase,thedistinguishingcharacteristicofa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀwaswhether [t]heruleofapportionment could reasonably%  {n6  8    7    {n*5596  8    7    {nԀapply tothetax.%   {n4Z8    5  {n1516  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHedidnotbelieveapportionmentcouldbeappliedtocarriagetaxes withoutverygreatinequalityandinjustice. %   {n48    5  {n1526  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHegaveasanexampletwostateswithequalpopulations,butoneofwhichhad 100carriages,andintheother1000. %   {n48    5  {n1536  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀInthatscenario, [t]heownersofcarriagesinoneState,wouldpaytentimesthetaxofownersintheother. %   {n48    5  {n1546  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHerejectedHylton'sargumentthatthisharsheffectcouldbeeliminatedbyallowingthetaxtobeapportionedbasedonotheritems(horses,tobacco,andrice,forexample)inadditiontocarriages: itseemstome,thatitwouldbeliabletothesameobjectionofabuseandoppression,asaselectionofanyonearticleinalltheStates. %   {n4E8    5  {n1556  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJusticeChasecharacterizedan {n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n asanytaxonanexpense,andhethought anannualtaxonacarriagefortheconveyanceofpersons,isofthatkind;becauseacarriageisaconsumeablecommodity;andsuchannualtaxonit,isontheexpenceoftheowner. %  {n4J8    5  {n1566  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHealsowas inclinedtothink,butofthis[hedid]notgiveajudicialopinion,thatthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀcontemplatedbythe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,areonlytwo,towit,acapitation,orpolltax,simply,withoutregardtoproperty,profession,oranyothercircumstance;andataxonLAND. %  {n48    5  {n1576  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHe doubt[ed]whetheratax,byageneralassessmentofpersonalproperty,withintheUnitedStates,isincludedwithintheterm{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. %  {n48    5  {n1586  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJusticeChase,then,tookanarrowerviewofthetermthanevenHamiltondid,aviewthatisnotaltogetherconsistentwithourcorpusfindings.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nPerhapsbecauseofthatnarrowconstruction,JusticeChase'sreasoningalsoexpressednoconcernwiththeFramers'decisionto%  {n6  8    7    {n*5606  8    7    {nԀcarveoutanareaoftaxesthatrequiredapportionment.6  8    7    {nJusticePaterson'sopinion,incontrast,revealedintensedislikeforapportionment.Heclaimedthattheapportionmentrequirementwasincludedtobenefitsouthernslaveowners.%  {n48    5  {n1596  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nJusticePatersonhadheardandparticipatedinthedebatesattheConstitutionalConvention.Hewasfamousforhavingintroducedtheso-called NewJerseyPlan, whichcalledforequalrepresentationofthestatesinCongress.%  {n4%8    5  {n1606  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀJusticeChasewasnotattheConvention,andhedidnothaveaccesstoMadison'snotesfromtheConvention,whichwouldnotbepublisheduntilyearslater.%  {n48    5  {n1616  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSo,itwasunderstandablethatJusticeChase'sopinionwaslimitedtologicdeducedfromtheconstitutionaltextwithoutreferencetoanydebatefromtheConvention.ButJusticePatersonhadpersonalknowledgeofthatdebate,andherevealedsomeofitinhisdiscussionoftheapportionmentprovision:B3 BdB        {n     {n    M  M   {n    M    {n6  8    7    {nTheprovisionwasmadeinfavorofthesouthernStates.Theypossessedalargenumberofslaves;theyhadextensivetractsofterritory,thinlysettled,andnotveryproductive.Amajorityofthestateshadbutfewslaves,andseveralofthemalimitedterritory,wellsettled,andinahighstateofcultivation.Thesouthernstates,ifnoprovisionhadbeenintroducedinthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,wouldhavebeenwhollyatthemercyoftheotherstates.Congressinsuchcase,mighttaxslaves,atdiscretionorarbitrarily,andlandineverypartoftheUnionafterthesamerateormeasure:somuchaheadinthefirstinstance,andsomuchanacreinthesecond.Toguardthemagainstimpositionintheseparticulars,wasthe%  {n6  8    7    {n*5616  8    7    {nԀreasonofintroducingtheclausetothe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,whichdirectsthatrepresentativesand{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀshallbeapportionedamongthestates,accordingtotheirrespectivenumbers.%  {n48    5  {n1626  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n%      {n6  8    7    {nAccordingtoJusticePaterson, [t]he{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀhasbeenconsideredasanaccommodatingsystem;itwastheeffectofmutualsacrificesandconcessions;itwastheworkofcompromise. %  {n4{8    5  {n1636  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHecharacterized theruleofapportionment as ofthisnature. %  {n4 8    5  {n1646  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀBut,headded,therulewas radicallywrong;itcannotbesupportedbyanysolidreasoning. %  {n48    5  {n1656  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHefoundnojustificationforgivingsouthernersspecialtaxtreatmentfortheirslaves.%  {n48    5  {n1666  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀTheruleofapportionment,inhismind,wasanaberrationthat therefore,oughtnottobeextendedbyconstruction. %  {n4]8    5  {n1676  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀNordid numbers (i.e.,astate'spopulation) affordajustestimateorruleofwealth.Itis,indeed,averyuncertainandincompetentsignofopulence. %  {n4m8    5  {n1686  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatwasyet anotherreasonagainsttheextensionoftheprinciple ofapportionment laiddowninthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n. %   {n48    5  {n1696  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThus,eventhoughJusticePatersondidnotthinkthequestionpresentedinthecasewasasclear-cutastherestofthecourtdeemedittobe,onethingwascleartohim:thecategoryof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀshouldbenarrowlyconstruedbecauseoftheseemingunfairnessoftheapportionmentrequirement.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% !     {n6  8    7    {nJusticePatersonalsoagreedwithJusticeChasethat [a]taxoncarriages,ifapportioned,wouldbeoppressiveandpernicious becauseoftheunevendistributionofcarriagesbetweenthestates.% " {n48    5  {n1706  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHeclaimedthatHylton'sargumentconstitutednothingmorethan% # {n6  8    7    {n*5626  8    7    {nԀareturntothemethodofraisingmoneyundertheArticlesofConfederation,whichwasadisaster: Requisitionswereadeadletter,unlessthestatelegislaturescouldbebroughtintoaction;andwhentheywere,thesumsraisedwereverydisproportional.Unequalcontributionsorpaymentsengendereddiscontent,andfomentedstate-jealousy. % $ {n48    5  {n1716  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndJusticePatersonbelittledHylton'sargumentthatthetaxcouldbeimposedonothergoodstoavoidunfairimpactonparticularcarriageowners.Hecalledit absurd and novel, andthat [t]herewillbenoruletowalkby ifapportionmentwereadoptedforcarriagetaxes.% % {n4?8    5  {n1726  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% &     {n6  8    7    {nJusticeIredellwasnotasharshinhisrhetoricaswasJusticePaterson,buthetooruledagainstHyltonallthesame.WithrespecttoHylton'sargumentaboutapportioningthetaxbasedonavarietyofitems,JusticeIredellremarked, Ishouldhavethoughtthismerelyanexerciseofingenuity,ifithadnotbeenpressedwithsomeearnestness;andasthiswasdonebygentlemenofhighrespectabilityintheirprofession,itdeservesaseriousanswer,thoughitisverydifficulttogivesuchaone. % ' {n4C8    5  {n1736  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHethenproceededtogiveanexampleofataxthatallowedforhorsestobesubstitutedforcarriagesinapportioningtaxes.% ( {n48    5  {n1746  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSuchapportionment,henoted,mightendupwithonlyhorsesbeingtaxedbyastatutethatpurportstobeataxoncarriages.% ) {n48    5  {n1756  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThathypotheticalwasenoughforJusticeIredelltorejectHylton'sattempttoaddresstheperceivedunfairnessofapportionment.% * {n4(8    5  {n1766  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIntheend,JusticeIredellsharedJusticeChase'sviewthatbecausethecarriagetaxcouldnotbefairlyapportioned,itwas nota{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀinthesenseofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n. % + {n48    5  {n1776  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% ,     {n6  8    7    {n% - {n6  8    7    {n*5636  8    7    {nԀJusticeIredellalsoagreedwithJusticeChasethat [t]hereisnonecessity,orpropriety,indeterminingwhatisorisnot,adirect,or{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {n,{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀinallcases. % . {n48    5  {n1786  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀNonetheless,hespeculatedthat a{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀinthesenseofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n mightbe ataxonsomethinginseparablyannexedtothesoil:Somethingcapableofapportionmentunderallsuchcircumstances. % / {n48    5  {n1796  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndhenotedthat [a]landorapolltaxmaybeconsideredofthisdescription. % 0 {n4Q8    5  {n1806  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀIredell'sviewofwhatwouldbea{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀappearstobeconsistentwithourcorpusresults,insofarasitconfirmsthatataxthatfallsonlandisa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Astoanyotherarticlethatmightbetaxed,JusticeIredellobservedthat theremaypossiblybeconsiderabledoubt. % 1 {n48    5  {n1816  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀWhatwasnotinanydoubtwasthatthecarriagetaxwas nota{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀinthesenseofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n. % 2 {n48    5  {n1826  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% 3     {n6  8    7    {nFinally,JusticeWilsonpennedtheshortestopinionofanyJusticewhodecidedthecase.Hewrotesimplythathehadexpressedhisviewsbefore--hewasoneofthejudgeswhohadruledforthegovernmentinthecircuitcourt--and theunanimityoftheotherthreeJudges ontheSupremeCourtservedto relieve him fromthenecessity ofgivinghisreasoningagain.% 4 {n48    5  {n1836  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀUnfortunately,JusticeWilson'scircuitcourtopinionisnotavailableinanypublicationwehavelocated.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% 5     {n6  8    7    {nOneinformativeaspectoftheJustices'opinionsandcounsel'sargumentsin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀistheuseofsecondarysourcestodetermineconstitutionalmeaning.Hamiltonmentioned thedoctrineoftheFrenchEconomists, alongwithareferenceto Lockeandotherspeculativewriters, buthedidnotrelyonthosesourcesforthe% 6 {n6  8    7    {n*5646  8    7    {nԀdefinitionof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n. % 7 {n4W8    5  {n1846  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀInstead,hearguedthatthecommondenominatorofthosewritings--that landtaxesonlywouldbe{n{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n --wasinconsistentwiththe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,inwhich acapitationisspokenofasa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n. % 8 {n4i8    5  {n1856  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThus,heconcluded somethingmore thanjustland wasintendedbythe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n whenitusedtheterm {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n. % 9 {n48    5  {n1866  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀButwhatthatwas,Hamiltonargued,wasunclear.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% :     {n6  8    7    {nWickhamalsocitedtheFrencheconomists,alongwithAdamSmith's{n6  8    7    {nWealthofNations6  8    7    {n,but,unlikeHamilton,hefoundnoambiguityoftermsusedinthosesources.% ; {n48    5  {n1876  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀEventhoughtheFrenchmendisagreedwithSmith onthequestion inparticularof whether{n6  8    7    {ndirect6  8    7    {nԀor{n{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {nԀaretobepreferred, bothsidesagreedthattheterm {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n meant ataxonrevenue,orthesourcefromwhichitisdrawn andthat {n`d6  8    7   %%% {nindirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n meant ataxonconsumptionandexpence. % < {n48    5  {n1886  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% =     {n6  8    7    {nTaylordidnotdirectlyrespondtoWickham'scitedworks,butinsteadreliedondictionariestointerprettherelevantconstitutionalterms.Hearguedthat [i]nalltheglossaries,legal,scientificorgeneraltowhichIhavereferred,theterm{n6  8    7    {nexcise6  8    7    {nԀisexpoundedtomean{n6  8    7    {ntribute6  8    7    {n,andtributeisatax. % > {n4H8    5  {n1896  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀTaylorcited,inparticular,SamuelJohnson's{n6  8    7    {nDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage6  8    7    {n,publishedin1755,foritsdefinitionsofa tax, a duty, and direct. % ? {n48    5  {n1906  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHealsodiscussedEnglishcommonlawpracticeaswellaspolicyargumentsrootedinpoliticalphilosophyandhistory.% @ {n4a8    5  {n1916  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% A     {n6  8    7    {nTheJustices,however,placedonlylimitedrelianceonanythingotherthantheconstitutionaltextintheiropinions.Theonlysource% B {n6  8    7    {n*5656  8    7    {nԀcitedotherthanthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀandtheCarriageActwasAdamSmith's{n6  8    7    {nWealthofNations6  8    7    {n,whichJusticePaterson'sopinionquotedforitsdiscussionoftaxationofconsumablegoods.% C {n4r8    5  {n1926  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndotherthanafleetingreferenceto [t]hehistoryoftheUnitedNetherlands forasmallpointinJusticePaterson'sopinion,theJusticesgavenoindicationthatforeignlawhadanyrelevancetotheissuepresented.% D {n4!8    5  {n1936  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% E     {n6  8    7    {nWhatarewetomakeoftheCourt'sapparentinattentiontosecondarysources,evendictionaries,todetermineconstitutionalmeaning?Ifcorpuslinguisticsasweknowithadbeenavailabletothe{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀCourt,wouldtheJusticeshaveusedit?B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% F     {n6  8    7    {nOneansweristhattoday'spracticeofcorpuslinguisticswasnotneededbecausetheadvocatesandtheJusticesweresocloseintimetothe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution's`d{n6  8    7    {nԀadoptionandratification--indeed,someoftheFramersandRatifiersthemselveswereincourt.ThereasoningoftheJustices,particularlythosewhoattendedtheConstitutionalConvention,evincespersonalknowledgeoftheframingandratificationdebates.Todaywecanreplicatethatknowledge,albeitimperfectly,throughcorpuslinguisticsresearch.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% G     {n6  8    7    {nButdespitethefactthatsomeFramersandRatifierswerepresentin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {n,thelegalargumentsandreasoninginthatcasereliedonmorethansimplypersonalrecollection.Hylton'scounselused glossaries, includingawell-knownBritishdictionary;bothsidescitedphilosophicalandlegalwritingsoftheFrencheconomistsandtheScottishenlightenment.Theuseofsucha corpus, thoughlimited,inearlySupremeCourtandlowerfederalcourtadvocacysuggeststheproprietyofrelianceonthecorpuslinguisticsavailabletodayinmorerobustform.Theadvocacyin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀalsosuggeststhatmorethanjustAmericansourcesshouldbeincludedinthecorpus% H {n6  8    7    {n*5666  8    7    {nԀtodetermineconstitutionalmeaning:counselin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀimplicitlyarguedthattheFramerswereinfluencedbyusageofwordsnotonlyfromtheBritishIsles(astherelianceonAdamSmithandJohnLockesuggests)butalsofromtranslatedwritingsfromtheContinent(forexample,thecitationstotheFrencheconomistsandthehistoryoftheNetherlands).SodeterminingwhichsourcesmadeittotheUnitedStatesandincorporatingthemintoCOFEAcouldincreaseitsvalueasaresourceforacademics,litigants,andcourts.TheabsenceofforeignsourcesinCOFEAweakenstheforceofourfindingsbasedonthatdatabase.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% I     {n6  8    7    {nFinally,JusticePaterson'sextensivereferencestotheexperiencesofthestatesundertheArticlesofConfederationconfirmtherelevanceofwordusagenotjustatthenationallevelbutalsoinstatelaws,customsandpractices.And,again,totheextentthestates'experiencewasinformedbyforeignexamples,particularlyEngland,sourcesfromthosejurisdictionsmayberelevantfordeterminingconstitutionalmeaningaswell.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % J     {n6  8    7    {nIV.{n6  8    7    {nAvenuesforFutureStudyB3 BdB        {n% K     {n6  8    7    {nOurresearchleftuswithtwocrucialopenquestionsastotheoriginalmeaningof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n.Westilldonotknowwherethelineisbetweena{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀonpropertyandanindirectexcise.Andwedonotknowwhetheratax'sdirectnessturnsontheclassofpropertytowhichitappliesoritseconomiccharacteristics.Howshouldweseektheanswerstothoseopenquestions,havingexhaustedtheassistancecorpuslinguisticscanprovide?Thereareafewpossibleavenues.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% L     {n6  8    7    {nFirst,aswenotedabove,researchintostatesystemsoftaxationandintotheoriginalmeaningofexciseanddutycouldhelpclarifythemeaningof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n inthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n.% M {n48    5  {n1946  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSuchstudyshouldincludestatepracticesbothbeforeandafterratificationofthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {n,andevenaslateastheearlynineteenthcentury(a% N {n6  8    7    {n*5676  8    7    {nԀtimeperiodbeyondCOFEA's1799cutoffdate).Forexample,duringtheWarof1812,Congressimposedtaxesonrealestateandvariousformsofpersonalproperty,includinghouseholdfurnitureandgoldandsilverwatches.% O {n48    5  {n1956  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀSomeofthosetaxeswereapportionedbystate;otherswerenot.% P {n4u8    5  {n1966  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀInaletterpublishedin1815inresponse,GouverneurMorrisdeclaredhis BeliefthataTaxonHousesLandsSlavesCattleorFurnitureisa{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {n that oughttobeapportionedamongtheStatesintheRatiopointedoutbythenationalCompact. % Q {n48    5  {n1976  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThoughMorriswasonlyonevoiceinthepublicdebate,hiswritingsuggeststhatadditionalcorpusresearchafterthetimeframethatCOFEAcoversmaybeprobative.Attheveryleast,itshouldextendbeyonditscurrentterminationpoint,Washington'sdeathyear,toayearthatwouldcapturemostofthelifetimesofthefoundinggeneration.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% R     {n6  8    7    {nSecond,LawrenceSolum'sconstitutionaltriangulationmethodofferssomepromise.% S {n4/8    5  {n1986  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀHeadvocatesforusingacombinationofcorpuslinguisticanalysis,immersion,andintensestudyoftheConstitutionalRecord.% T {n48    5  {n1996  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀImmersion--delvinginto sourcessuchasdiaries,newspapers,broadsheets,novels,andletters andevenintostateandEnglishtaxlaws--couldfurtherclarifypopularunderstandingofthepowertoimpose{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.% U {n4E8    5  {n2006  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀAndthoroughanalysisofless-studiedaspectsoftheconstitutionalrecord(atleastwithrespecttodirecttaxation)liketheratificationdebatescouldshedfurtherlightonwhatthepeopleunderstoodthemselvestoagreeto% V {n6  8    7    {n*5686  8    7    {nԀwhentheygavethenationalgovernmentthepowertoimpose{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n.% W {n48    5  {n2016  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% X     {n6  8    7    {nThird,ProfessorWilliamBaude'srevivaloftheMadisoniannotionofconstitutionalliquidationoffersanotheravenuefutureresearcherscouldtake.% Y {n48    5  {n2026  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀItisahotlycontestedconcept,butforthosewhoagreewithBaudeaboutliquidation,the{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nDirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nTax`d{n6  8    7    {nԀClausecouldbeaprimecandidate.Liquidationrequiresthreethings:indeterminacy,acourseofdeliberatepractice,andsettlement.% Z {n48    5  {n2036  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀFirst,atermorphraseinthe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀmusthave doubtfulorcontestedmeanings. % [ {n4L8    5  {n2046  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀThatisclearlypresenthere.Althoughtherearesomeclearmeaningsof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n,thereremainsadoubtfulgrayareathatissubjecttogreatcontestation.6  8    7    {nThus,futurescholarscouldseektodeterminewhetheracourseofdeliberatepracticeandanultimatesettlementoccurredastothemeaningof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n,soastoliquidateitsmeaningastotheclosequestionstheearlycongressesandCourtfaced.% \ {n4X8    5  {n2056  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀForliquidationpurposes,itbearsnotingthattheall-FederalistSupremeCourt'sdecisionin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {nԀcouldnotliquidatethemeaningof{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntax`d{n6  8    7    {n;thefinalstage(settlement)insteadrequiredtheacquiescenceoftheopposingparty(inthecarriagetaxcontext,JeffersonianRepublicanslikeMadison)andtheacquiescenceofthepeopleatlarge.% ] {n48    5  {n2066  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀWhetherthosefeaturesexistedmeritsfurtherexploration.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB        {n % ^     {n6  8    7    {n% _ {n6  8    7    {n*5696  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nConclusionB3 BdB        {n% `     {n6  8    7    {nSoonaftertheAmericanRevolutionended,AlexanderHamiltonwrotetoGouverneurMorris, Letusbotherectatempletotime;onlyregrettingthatweshallnotcommandalongerportionofittoseewhatwillbetheeventoftheAmericandrama. % a {n48    5  {n2076  8    7  6  8    7    {nԀCorpuslinguisticsgoesintheoppositedirectionofHamilton'svision:itallowsfortimetravelofsortstostudyadigitalrecordfromthebeginningofthedrama--theworldoftheFramers.LikeMartyMcFly'sDeLorean,corpuslinguisticscanbeimprovedwithmodificationforsubsequenttripsbacktothepast.% b {n48    5  {n2086  8    7  B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀ     {n% c     {n6  8    7    {nButthevehicle,asis,provedusableenoughforourpurposes.First,thecorpusconfirmedthattheFoundinggenerationdidinfactspeakof {n`d6  8    7   %%% {ndirect`d{n6  8    7    {nԀ{n`d6  8    7   %%% {ntaxes`d{n6  8    7    {n withconfidencethatthetermcouldbedefined.Second,ourfindingsrevealedconsensusastoatleastsometypesoftaxesthatwereconsideredtobedirect.Finally,corpuslinguisticsfitscomfortablywithinthemethodologyusedin{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {n.Counselinthatcasereliedonarudimentarybodyofsecondary-sourcematerialsthatpredatedorwerecontemporaneouswiththe{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConstitution`d{n6  8    7    {nԀasanaidforitsinterpretation.Corpuslinguisticsissimplyamorerobustapproachthatisconsistentwithearlyfederal-courtadvocacy.And,atleastinthisinstanceinvolvingresearchintothetaxingofcarriages,corpuslinguisticsshowspromisetobeastechnologicallyrevolutionaryascarriagesofthehorselessvariety.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6  8    7    {nԀB3 BdB    B3 BdB        {n*% d%,22,22+  6!ddd6     {n6  8    7    &{nFootnotesB3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% d {n48    5  {na16  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJudge,UnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheSixthCircuit.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% e {n48    5  {naa16  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nLawclerktoJudgeJustinWalker,UnitedStatesCourtofAppealsfortheD.C.Circuit.FormerlawclerktoJudgeBush.J.D.StanfordLawSchool,B.A.SouthernMethodistUniversity.JLPP'seditorialstaffhasnotindependentlyreviewedthecorpuslinguisticsanalysispresentedherein.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% f {n48    5  {n16  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nRichardBrookhiser,WhatWouldtheFoundersDo6  8    7    {n?46(2006).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% g {n48    5  {n26  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀGaryLawson&GuySeidman,4 8    5  {n V {nOriginalismasaLegalEnterprise V {n,23{n{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n.Comment. V {nԀ47,59(2006)6  8    7    {nԀ( [W]henthe{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n  {nԀdeclaresthat WethePeople ordainandestablish the{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n  {n,itdeclaresthat WethePeople arethelegal,evenifnotthephysical,authorsofthewordscontainedinthedocument.Accordingtothe{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n  {n, WethePeople aretryingtocommunicate,andtheintentionsof WethePeople arethereforethekeytothatcommunication. ).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% h {n48    5  {n36  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀ4 8    5  {nHyltonv.UnitedStates,3U.S.(3Dall.)171,173(1796)6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% i {n48    5  {n46  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nU.S.{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConst`d{n6  8    7    {n.6  8    7    {nԀart.I,2,8-9.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% j {n48    5  {n56  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀ{n6  8    7    {nU.S.{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConst`d{n6  8    7    {n.6  8    7    {nԀart.I,2.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% k {n48    5  {n66  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀActofJune5,1794,1Stat.373,ch.45,{n6  8    7    {nrepealedby6  8    7    {nԀActofApr.6,1802,ch.19,2Stat.148.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% l {n48    5  {n76  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJosephM.Dodge,4 8    5  {n V {nWhatFederalTaxesAreSubjecttotheRuleofApportionmentUnderthe{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n V {n? V {n,11{n V {nU.Pa.J.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n.L. V {nԀ839,880(2009)6  8    7    {n.CongressalsoimposedanincometaxduringtheCivilWarthatsurviveduntil1872.48    5  {n V {nId V {n.at8796  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% m {n48    5  {n86  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nDanielleKurtzleben,{n6  8    7    {nHowWouldaWealthTaxWork?6  8    7    {n,NPR(Dec.5,2019,5:00AM),https://www.npr.org/2019/12/05/782135614/how-would-a-wealth-tax-work[https://perma.cc/A2NW-QK7V](notingthen-presidentialcandidatesElizabethWarrenandBernieSanders'ssupportforawealthtax).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% n {n48    5  {n96  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀ4/8    5  {nHyltonv.UnitedStates,3U.S.(3Dall.)171(1796)6  8    7    {n;{n  {nseealso  {nԀ428    5  {nPollockv.Farmers'Loan&Tr.Co.,157U.S.429(1895)6  8    7    {nԀ(PollockI)(supersededbyConstitutionalAmendmentasstatedin4)8    5  {nBrushaberv.UnionPac.R.R.Co.,240U.S.1,18(1916)6  8    7    {n);DanielHemel&RebeccaKysar,{n  {nTheBigProblemwithWealthTaxes  {n,{n  {nN.Y.Times  {nԀ(Nov.7,2019),https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/07/opinion/wealth-tax-constitution.html[https://perma.cc/7EBR-VPD6].B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% o {n48    5  {n106  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n48    5  {nNat'lFed'nofIndep.Bus.v.Sebelius,567U.S.519,570(2012)6  8    7    {nԀ(internalcitationomitted).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% p {n48    5  {n116  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJenniferL.Mascott,48    5  {n V {nWhoAre OfficersoftheUnitedStates ? V {n,70{n V {nStanL.Rev. V {nԀ443,467(2018)6  8    7    {nԀ(quotingStephenC.Mouritsen,438    5  {n V {nHardCasesandHardData:AssessingCorpusLinguisticsasanEmpiricalPathtoPlainMeaning V {n,13{n V {nColum.Sci.&Tech.L.Rev. V {nԀ156,190(2011)6  8    7    {n)(alterationinoriginal).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% q {n4W8    5  {n126  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nLawrenceB.Solum,4;8    5  {n V {nTriangulatingPublicMeaning:CorpusLinguistics,Immersion,andtheConstitutionalRecord V {n,2017{n V {nB.Y.U.L.Rev. V {nԀ1621,16456  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% r {n4y8    5  {n136  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n48    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,9,cl.46  8    7    {n.TheApportionmentClausealsosaysthat Representativesand{n`d %%% {ndirect`d{n  {nԀ{n`d %%% {nTaxes`d{n  {nԀshallbeapportionedamongtheseveralStates.... 4%8    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,2,cl.36  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% s {n448    5  {n146  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nDawnJohnsen&WalterDellinger,418    5  {n V {nTheConstitutionalityofaNationalWealthTax V {n,93{n V {nInd.L.J. V {nԀ111,119(2018)6  8    7    {n;{n  {nseealso  {nԀDodge,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote7,at843-45(explaininghowapportionmentwouldwork).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% t {n4z8    5  {n156  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀSolum,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote12,at1647.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% u {n48    5  {n166  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n4/8    5  {n3U.S.(3Dall.)171(1796)6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% v {n4b8    5  {n176  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n4%8    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,2,cl.36  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% w {n4r8    5  {n186  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n4*8    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,8,cl.16  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% x {n48    5  {n196  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n48    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,9,cl.46  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% y {n4^8    5  {n206  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀDodge,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote7,at848.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% z {n4\8    5  {n216  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% { {n4T8    5  {n226  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nErikM.Jensen,48    5  {n V {nTheApportionmentof {n`d %%% {nDirect`d{n V {nԀ{n`d %%% {nTaxes`d{n V {n :AreConsumptionTaxesConstitutional? V {n,97{n V {nColum.L.Rev. V {nԀ2334,2381n.253(1997)6  8    7    {nԀ(citing{n  {nRogerH.Brown,RedeemingtheRepublic:Federalists,Taxation,andtheOriginsofthe{n{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n  {nԀ12(1993))[hereinafterJensen,{n  {nConsumptionTaxes  {n].B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% | {n48    5  {n236  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee4&8    5  {n V {nid V {n.at23806  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% } {n4~8    5  {n246  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n48    5  {n V {nId V {n.at23816  8    7    {nԀ( Creationofanadequaterevenuesystemwas,formanyifnotmostfounders,acriticalaspectof{n`d %%% {nconstitution`d{n  {nԀmaking. );Dodge,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote7,at848( TheConstitutionalConventionof1787largelyresultedfromaneffort(ledbyVirginia)tocreateanationalgovernmentwithameaningfultaxingpower. ).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n% ~ {n48    5  {n256  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nTherewas,ofcourse,noofficialhistoryoftheconvention,butMadison'snotes--thoughfarfromperfectlyreliable--offerinsightintothedraftingprocess.Dodge,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote7,at848-49&n.27.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n266  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {n1{n6  8    7    {nTheRecordsoftheFederalConventionof6  8    7    {nԀ1787,at591-92(MaxFarranded.,rev.ed.1966).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n276  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4d8    5  {n286  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n296  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n306  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4A8    5  {n316  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nDodge,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote7,at853.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n326  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at854;48    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,9,cl.46  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4h8    5  {n336  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {n2{n6  8    7    {nTheRecordsoftheFederalConventionof6  8    7    {nԀ1787,at350(MaxFarranded.,rev.ed.1966).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4 8    5  {n346  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee,e.g.6  8    7    {n,DwightW.Morrow,{n6  8    7    {nTheIncomeTaxAmendment6  8    7    {n,10{n6  8    7    {nColum.L.Rev.6  8    7    {nԀ379,398(1910);Johnsen&Dellinger,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote14,at117-18( Theevidenceestablishesthattheterm'smeaningwasuncleartotheFramersthemselves. );BruceAckerman,48    5  {n V {nTaxationandthe{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n V {n,99{n V {nColum.L.Rev. V {nԀ1,4(1999)6  8    7    {nԀ( [T]heFoundersdidn'thaveaveryclearsenseofwhattheyweredoingincarvingoutadistinctcategoryof {n`d %%% {ndirect`d{n  {n {n`d %%% {ntaxes`d{n  {nԀforspecialtreatment. ).ErikJensen,inrefutingthissomewhatapocryphalreadingofthehistoricalrecord,pointsoutthat [a]ttheMassachusettsratifyingconvention,Kinghimselfdidnotappeartobethehopelesslyconfusedsoulthattheunansweredquestionwouldsuggest.  {nInurgingratification,Kingstated, Itisaprincipleofthis{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n  {n,thatrepresentationandtaxationshouldgohandinhand. Jensen,{n  {nConsumptionTaxes  {n,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote22,at2379(quoting2{n  {nTheDebatesintheSeveralStateConventionsontheAdoptionofthe{n  {nFederal{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n  {nԀ36(JonathanEllioted.,1876)).CharlotteCrane,inadraftarticle,goesastepfurtherandposits notonlythepossibilitythattheexpressiondidhaveameaning,butalsothatconsciouseffortsmayhavebeenmadeduringtheearlyyearsoftherepublictoobscurethatmeaning. CharlotteCrane,ReclaimingtheMeaningof {n`d %%% {nDirect`d{n  {nԀ{n`d %%% {nTax`d{n  {n 3(Feb.15,2010)(unpublishedmanuscript)(availableathttps://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1553230)[https://perma.cc/ACW8-TFT4].B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n356  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee{n6  8    7    {ninfra6  8    7    {nԀnote41.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n366  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nAckerman,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote34,at58.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4P8    5  {n376  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at10,51.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4b8    5  {n386  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at51.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n396  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n406  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJohnsen&Dellinger,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote14,at120.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4~8    5  {n416  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at124-25.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n426  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at122.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n436  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at125;{n6  8    7    {nseealso6  8    7    {nԀCalvinH.Johnson,448    5  {n V {nApportionmentof{n`d %%% {nDirect`d{n V {nԀ{n`d %%% {nTaxes`d{n V {n:TheFoul-UpintheCoreofthe{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n V {n,7{n V {nWm.&MaryBillofRts.J. V {nԀ1,71-82(1998)6  8    7    {nԀ(advocatingforasimilarfunctionalistapproachlimitingapportionmenttocases whenitisreasonableandconvenient whileacknowledgingthatsuchanapproachisahistorical);{n  {nbutsee  {nԀDodge,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote7,at916-17(disputingJohnson'sinterpretationsof{n  {nHylton  {n).Johnsonactuallybelievesthattheoriginalmeaningof{n`d %%% {ndirect`d{n  {nԀ{n`d %%% {ntax`d{n  {nԀisbroaderthananyofthesedefinitions,encompassinganyinternaltax,includinganexciseorconsumptiontax.{n  {nSee  {nԀJohnson,48    5  {n V {nsupra V {n,at466  8    7    {n.AnabundanceofdatainthecorpusanecdotallydisprovedJohnson'sconceptionofthephrase'soriginalmeaning.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n446  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJohnsen&Dellinger,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote14,at122-25(relyingheavilyon{n6  8    7    {nHylton6  8    7    {n).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n456  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nDodge,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote7,at841.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4i8    5  {n466  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at918.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n476  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at922(emphasisinoriginal).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n486  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at927.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4}8    5  {n496  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at930-31.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n506  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at932.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4D8    5  {n516  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nErikM.Jensen,48    5  {n V {nTaxationandthe{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n V {n:HowtoReadthe{n`d %%% {nDirect`d{n V {nԀ{n`d %%% {nTax`d{n V {nԀClauses V {n,15{n V {nJ.L.&Pol. V {nԀ687,698(1999)6  8    7    {nԀ[hereinafterJensen,{n  {nHowtoRead  {n];ErikM.Jensen,4!8    5  {n V {nInterpretingtheSixteenthAmendment(ByWayofthe{n`d %%% {nDirect`d{n V {n-{n`d %%% {nTax`d{n V {nԀClauses) V {n,21{n{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n.Comment. V {nԀ355,360(2004)6  8    7    {n;ErikM.Jensen,48    5  {n V {nTheTaxingPower,theSixteenthAmendment,andtheMeaningof Incomes  V {n,33{n V {nAriz.St.L.J. V {nԀ1057,1075(2001)6  8    7    {n;{n  {nsee  {nԀJensen,{n  {nConsumptionTaxes  {n,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote22,at2394-95;{n  {nseealso  {nԀErikM.Jensen,48    5  {n V {nDidtheSixteenthAmendmentEverMatter?DoesitMatterToday? V {n,108{n V {nNw.U.L.Rev. V {nԀ799,809(2014)6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n438    5  {n526  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJensen,{n6  8    7    {nConsumptionTaxes6  8    7    {n,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote22,at2395.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4h8    5  {n536  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n546  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n556  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at2405-06.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n566  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee,e.g.6  8    7    {n,Ackerman,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote34,at52-56(accusingJensenofhavingan intemperateformulation, creating distortion, making ahashoftheFoundingtext, andtakinga backwardsapproachtothedefinitionofkeyterms );Jensen,{n6  8    7    {nHowtoRead6  8    7    {n,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote51,at689( LifeistooshorttorespondtoalltheproblemsinProfessorAckerman'sarticle. );{n6  8    7    {nid6  8    7    {n.at688( IshouldhaveleftinterpretationofconstitutionalmatterstotheGrandTheoristsatYale,whogenerallyavoidtheracismthattaintsmyarticleandwhoareneverenterprising. ).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4u8    5  {n576  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀJamesC.Phillips,BenjaminLee&JacobCrump,48    5  {n V {nCorpusLinguisticsandOfficersoftheUnitedStates V {n,42{n V {nHarv.J.L.&Pub.Pol'y V {nԀ871(2019)6  8    7    {nԀ(quoting{n  {nPaulBaker,GlossaryofCorpusLinguistics  {nԀ65(2006)).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4|8    5  {n586  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀThomasR.Lee&StephenC.Mouritsen,478    5  {n V {nJudgingOrdinaryMeaning V {n,127{n V {nYaleL.J. V {nԀ788,795(2018)6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4v8    5  {n596  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n408    5  {n V {nId V {n.at793-956  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4c8    5  {n606  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nThomasR.Lee&JamesC.Phillips,458    5  {n V {nData-DrivenOriginalism V {n,167{n V {nU.Pa.L.Rev. V {nԀ261,289-90(2019)6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n616  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nCompare6  8    7    {nԀDonaldL.Drakeman,4.8    5  {n V {nIsCorpusLinguisticsBetterthanFlippingaCoin? V {n,109{n V {nGeo.L.J.Online V {nԀ81,84(2020)6  8    7    {nԀ(answeringthetitularquestioninthenegative){n  {nwith  {nԀLee&Phillips,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote60.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n626  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n4 8    5  {nWilsonv.SafeliteGrp.,Inc.,930F.3d429,439(6thCir.2019)6  8    7    {nԀ(Thapar,J.,concurringinpartandinthejudgment).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n636  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀLee&Phillips,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote60,at290.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n646  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀStephanieH.Barclayetal.,4<8    5  {n V {nOriginalMeaningandtheEstablishmentClause:ACorpusLinguisticsAnalysis V {n,61{n V {nAriz.L.Rev. V {nԀ505,531(2019)6  8    7    {nԀ(usingCOFEAinstead).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4G8    5  {n656  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJamesCleithPhillips&SaraWhite,498    5  {n V {nTheMeaningoftheThreeEmolumentsClausesintheU.S.{n`d %%% {nConstitution`d{n V {n:ACorpusLinguisticAnalysisofAmericanEnglishfrom1760-1799 V {n,59{n V {nS.Tex.L.Rev. V {nԀ181,199(2017)6  8    7    {n;{n  {nsee  {nԀLee&Mouritsen,{n  {nsupra  {nԀnote58,at812(notingtheimproprietyofusingGoogleasacorpusbecauseofits blackbox algorithmandoverlygeneralnature).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n666  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nPhillips&White,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote65,at199-200.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n676  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n488    5  {n V {nId V {n.at2006  8    7    {nԀ(quoting{n  {nSusanHunston,CorporainAppliedLinguistics  {nԀ68(2002)).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n686  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.(offeringthecollocationof dark and light asanexample).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n696  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at201.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n706  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nBarclayetal.,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote64,at530.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n716  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nPhillips&White,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote65,at201.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4R8    5  {n726  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nBarclayetal.,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote64,at531.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n736  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nPhillips&White,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote65,at201;{n6  8    7    {nsee6  8    7    {nԀLee&Phillips,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote60,at291( Sense-distributioncoding(fromconcordance-lineanalysis)isarguablythemostimportantuseofacorpus;othertoolsaremoreexploratorythanconfirmatoryinnature(oratbestprovideonlyweakevidenceofmeaning). ).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4V8    5  {n746  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nLee&Phillips,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote60,at292.{n6  8    7    {nButsee6  8    7    {nԀKyraBabcockWoods,Note,4 8    5  {n V {nCorpusLinguisticsandGunControl:Why V {nԀHeller{n V {nIsWrong V {n,2019{n V {nB.Y.U.L.Rev. V {nԀ14016  8    7    {nԀ(demonstratingthatacorpuslinguisticsanalysisoftheSecondAmendmentisfarmoredifficultthantheaboveexample);JoshJones,Comment,48    5  {n V {nThe Weaponization ofCorpusLinguistics:Testing V {nԀHeller's{n V {nLinguisticClaims V {n,34{n V {nB.Y.U.J.Pub.L. V {nԀ135(2020)6  8    7    {nԀ(same).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n756  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀLee&Phillips,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote60,at291.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4>8    5  {n766  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n776  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at291,329.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n786  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nPhillips&White,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote65,at207(doingso);Jones,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote74,at173( ThelastcaveatIwouldaddisthatthisNote'sconcordancelinecodingwasobviouslytheproductofmyownintuitionandbiases.Ideally,codingdecisionsarereviewedbymultiplepeopleanddecisionsaresubjecttoqualitycontrol. ).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4 8    5  {n796  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nLee&Phillips,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote60,at292.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n806  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nSolum,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote12,at1645.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n816  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.at1647.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n826  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nCarissaByrneHessick,4$8    5  {n V {nCorpusLinguisticsandtheCriminalLaw V {n,2017{n V {nB.Y.U.L.Rev. 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(quotingThomasPiketty,AddressattheFourthAnnualNYU/UCLATaxPolicySymposium(Oct.3,2014)(quotedin{n  {nEconomistandBestsellingAuthorThomasPikettyDiscussesWealthInequalitywithDiverseExperts  {n,{n  {nN.Y.U.L.News  {nԀ(Oct.7,2014),http://www.law.nyu.edu/news/thomas-piketty-capital-twenty-first-century-economist[https://perma.cc/ZZB4-MJXE])).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n498    5  {n1146  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀAckerman,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote34,at6;{n6  8    7    {nseegenerally6  8    7    {nԀJohnsen&Dellinger,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote14.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1156  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nBrieffortheUnitedStates,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote102,at382.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1166  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀBankman&Shaviro,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote113,at489.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4.8    5  {n1176  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀJensen,{n6  8    7    {nConsumptionTaxes6  8    7    {n,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote22,at2395.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1186  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀ4*8    5  {n V {nU.S.{n`d %%% {nConst`d{n V {n. V {nԀart.I,8,cl.16  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1196  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee,e.g.6  8    7    {n,48    5  {nNicolv.Ames,173U.S.509,519(1899)6  8    7    {n;4 8    5  {nBromleyv.McCaughn,280U.S.124,136(1929)6  8    7    {n;{n  {nseealso  {nԀAriGlogower,4'8    5  {n V {nAConstitutionalWealthTax V {n,118{n V {nMich.L.Rev. V {nԀ717,729n.83(2020)6  8    7    {nԀ(notingthistrend).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1206  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {n6{n6  8    7    {nAnnalsofCong.6  8    7    {nԀ2635-2713(1799-1801).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1216  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee{n6  8    7    {nid6  8    7    {n.at2645-58(describingthesystemsinVermont,NewHampshire,andMassachusetts).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n408    5  {n1226  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀSolum,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote12,at1645.{n6  8    7    {nButsee6  8    7    {nԀLee&Phillips,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    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   {n,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote22,at2351-52.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4"8    5  {n1316  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4q8    5  {n1326  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nDocumentaryHistory6  8    7    {n,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote129,at382.Interestingly,thedocumentseemedtoinitiallysayonecarriage--acaretrisesafteronetoadd hundredandtwentyfive tocomplete(orperhapscreate)hisseeminglylegendarycarriagestable.{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4:8    5  {n1336  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nId6  8    7    {n.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n478    5  {n1346  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nJensen,{n6  8    7    {nConsumptionTaxes6  8    7    {n,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    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butnothavingheardthewholeoftheargument,hedeclinedtakinganypartinthedecisionofthiscause. 48    5  {n3U.S.(3Dall.)at172n.16  8    7    {n.Theotherjusticewhoabstained,WilliamCushing,explainedthat itwouldbeimpropertogiveanopiniononthemeritsofthecause becausehehad beenprevented,byindisposition,fromattendingtotheargument. 4#8    5  {n V {nId V {n.at1846  8    7    {nԀ(Cushing,J.).B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4H8    5  {n1396  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nU.S.{n`d6  8    7   %%% {nConst`d{n6  8    7    {n.6  8    7    {nԀSignatories.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n4N8    5  {n1406  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n{n6  8    7    {nSee6  8    7    {nԀAckerman,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote34,at21.B3 BdB    B3 BdB    B3 BdB    6!ddd6      {n%  {n48    5  {n1416  8    7  B3 BdB    .ddd.      {n     {n     {n6  8    7    {nBrieffortheUnitedStates,{n6  8    7    {nsupra6  8    7    {nԀnote102,at378-79.B3 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